TED Case Studies
Kenya Pesticides and Exports
CASE NUMBER: 438
CASE MNEMONIC: KENPEST
CASE DESCRIPTION: Kenya Pesticides and Exports
I. Identification
1. The Issue
Methyl bromide (MB), a pesticide that is used for soil fumigation, quarantine of high value export crops, and for grains and other commodities in storage, releases emissions that contribute to the depletion of the ozone layer. In many cases, it is used for crops that are not indigenous to a particular climate system. Most industrialized countries have agreed to phase out the production and use of this pesticide by 2010, with the United States accounting for 40% of global usage. Developing countries, like Kenya, are being asked to phase out the use of this substance by the year 2020. However, many of these countries use methyl bromide in agricultural production for commercial exports. 2. Description
In Kenya, methyl bromide is used for soil fumigation and treatment for the production of strawberries and cut flower for export to Europe. Like many sub-Saharan African countries, agriculture accounts for the majority portion of national production. In addition, nations like Kenya are heavily dependent on exports of such agricultural commodities to industrialized countries for foreign exchange revenues. Pesticide use in Africa is low relative to other regions of the world, but it is rising as many African countries derive increasing revenues from agricultural commodity exports. The use of methyl bromide in Africa is not widespread, but primarily used by large commercial farmers in countries like Zimbabwe, Kenya, and South Africa which combined account for the highest rates of MB usage on the continent. The use of MB within Kenya itself is limited to commercial farmers and government operated grain storage facilities.
What is alarming, however, is that Kenya uses 5% of its foreign exchange earnings to pay to import this harmful substance. In turn, export of cut flowers to Europe accounts for 13% of Kenya's export revenue (Cousteau, p.1). These statistics show how much Kenya's economy is dependent upon trade in agricultural commodities which depend on the use and production of materials that are not for local consumption. This type of production pattern is not sustainable in the long term. Structural adjustment policies throughout Africa increase this dependence on exports for national revenues. Not only must Kenya use MB in cut flower and strawberry production, in many cases, these products must also be sprayed with MB before importing countries in Europe will purchase the goods.
The very use of methyl bromide itself is not suited to sustainable agriculture because it leads to environmental degradation. This could lead to disastrous consequences for a country like Kenya with an economy based primarily on agricultural production.
3. Related Cases
CODEX case
MEXPEST case
MONTREAL case
COSTPEST case
VIETPEST case
SST case
BANANA case
SNOWPEA case 4. Draft Author:
N. Lowery, December 1997
II. Geographic Clusters
5. Discourse and Status:
AGREE and IN PROGRESS
Industrialized countries that are signatories to the Montreal Protocol agreed in December 1995 to reduce methyl bromide production by 25 percent by 2001; 50% by 2005; and a complete ban on production in 2010. According to that agreement, pesticide production in non-industrialized countries was to be frozen in 2002 at the levels for 1995-1998. In September 1997, the Ninth Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol was held. The following decisions were made:
| Year | Industrialized Countries | Non-Industrialized Countries |
| 1999 | 25% reduction in MB consumption | |
| 2001 | 50% reduction in MB consumption | |
| 2003 | 70% reduction in MB consumption | |
| 2005 | 100% reduction in MB consumption | 20% reduction in MB consumption |
| 2015 | | 100% reduction in MB consumption |
Source: Methyl Bromide Phaseout Web Site, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
6. Forum and Scope:
MULTI-NATIONAL and MULTI-LATERAL Kenya is a signatory party to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
7. Decision Breadth:
Number of Parties to the Montreal Protocol: 160 8. Legal Standing:
TREATY
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was signed in 1987. It is the primary international agreement providing for controls on the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances such as CFCs (chloroflorocarbons) and halons. In 1992, another meeting was held to accelerate the phaseout schedule of these substances and others such as methyl bromide (Montreal Protocol Home Page). III. Geographic Clusters
9. Geographic Locations
a. Geographic Domain: AFRICA b. Geographic Site: EAST AFRICA
c. Geographic Impact: KENYA
10. Sub-National Factors:
NO 11. Type of Habitat:
TROPical IV. Trade Clusters
12. Type of Measure:
Regulatory Ban
13. Direct v. Indirect Impacts:
DIRECT
International decisions made regarding the phase-out of the use and production of methyl bromide will have a direct impact on the means by which Kenya's agricultural sector cultivates and prepares cut flowers for export to countries within the European Community (EC) - mainly Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. In fact, if cost-efficient alternatives to the pesticide are not found before it is completely banned, Kenya may decide to stop producing these products completely. While it is true that industrialized countries have already agreed to a proposed schedule to phase out the production of methyl bromide, and developing countries have agreed to a tentative phaseout schedule, follow up actions must take place. Mechanisms must be put into place to ensure that either industrialized countries will continue to import products treated with methyl bromide from developing countries like Kenya or step up contributions to the Interim Multilateral Ozone Fund which is designed to help find and purchase chemical and non-chemical alternatives to the use of such environmentally damaging substances. Such alternatives include integrated pest management, solar heating, crop rotation, and biological pest control. Horticulture represents a significant portion of Kenya's foreign exchange earnings as it is trying to reduce its dependence on traditional exports such as coffee and tea. In 1995 alone, horticulture accounted for $207 million of the $1,914 million in merchandise exports (The Economist Country Report, p.8). Currently alternatives do exist, and once methyl bromide producers are mandated to end production, the prices of these alternatives will be more cost effective.
14. Relation of Trade Measure to Environmental Impact
a. Directly Related to Product: YES, strawberries and cut flowers b. Indirectly Related to Product: NO
c. Not Related to Product: NO
d. Related to Process: YES, ozone loss
The calculated lifetime of methyl bromide in the atmosphere is about 0.7 years. Studies have found that man-made methyl bromide is responsible for 3-10% of global stratospheric ozone destruction (McGehan, p.1)
15. Trade Product Identification:
Agriculture - Horticulture 
16. Economic Data
The cut flower industry represents 13% of Kenya's exports. For this reason alone, Kenya is heavily dependent on the use of methyl bromide or viable alternatives for a significant portion of its foreign exchange earnings. Flowers produced for export include roses, carnations, alstromeria, lisianthus, and eryngium. 17. Impact of Trade Restriction:
The ban on methyl bromide may impact trade if Kenya does not channel its resources into researching and testing existing alternatives to this substance. Agriculture researchers in Kenya are currently experimenting with IPM (integrated pest management) which has been very successful in Asia. 18. Industry Sector:
FOOD AND OTHER 19. Exporters and Importers:
Kenya imports most of its methyl bromide from Israel. Along with Zimbabwe and South Africa, Kenya is among the three top users of methyl bromide in Africa. "Kenya uses approximately 300 tons of methyl bromide annually, primarily for growing flowers...methyl bromide accounted for approximately 20% of total insecticides import in Kenya from 1986 to 1992" (PANUPS, p.1). Most of its strawberry and cut flower exports are traded with EC countries including Germany, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands. In 1991, Israel accounted for 66% of the global exports of methyl bromide (Methyl Bromide Use, p.2). V. Environment Clusters
20. Environmental Problem Type:
OZONE Loss
Methyl bromide, which emits atoms fifty times more destructive than chlorine atoms, has been proven to contribute to the depletion of the ozone layer. This is a global problem. While the production and use of methyl bromide is higher in the industrialized countries of North America and Europe, Africa is beginning to account for increasing use of the insecticide. As the production and consumption of methyl bromide is increasingly phased out and banned in more industrialized countries, many environmentalists predict that manufacturers of the substance will be tempted to sell increasing quantities to developing countries like Kenya, which do not have vast resources to invest in researching safer alternatives. In addition to is effects on the ozone layer, methyl bromide is also harmful to humans. Symptoms may include respiratory ailments, nausea, dizziness, and headaches. Methyl bromide also indirectly causes skin cancer and other effects caused by ozone depletion, which increases the levels of UV radiation to which humans are exposed.
21. Name, Type, and Diversity of Species
Methyl bromide is harmful to humans, animals, and plants because it disrupts the natural balance of the atmosphere. Because it contributes to the depletion of the ozone layer of the stratosphere, methyl bromide increases the likeliness of UV radiation, which is harmful to humans and causing temperature changes which can affect ecosystems. 22. Resource Impact and Effect:
LOW and PRODUCT
The phase out of methyl bromide use and production in Kenya only would have a LOW impact on the ozone layer, considering that the United States alone accounts for 40% of the global use of this substance. The agreement of all 160 signatories to the Montreal Protocol to reduce and phase out use of this substance will have a HIGH impact in decreasing the percentage of ozone layer depletion that occurs every year. 23. Urgency and Lifetime:
HIGH and 50 - 100 years The impact of continued methyl bromide use as a pesticide will be felt in the 21 century. Methyl bromide can last up to two years in the atmosphere. If methyl bromide is not phased out, there will be long-term risks for human health and the environment.
24. Substitutes:
LIKE
Known alternatives to methyl bromide for soil fumigation include phosphine, which can also be useful in treating stored goods, such as timber and grains. However, phosphine was labeled by the World Health Organization as hazardous because it is highly flammable. Another more promising alternative is Integrated Pest Management (IPM). IPM is increasingly being tested in developing countries, as has been proven highly successful in Asia. IPM involves crop rotation and use of traditional farming practices for sustainable agriculture. Africa's adverse environmental characteristics, which include a wide range of pests (including khapra beetles and cassava mealy bugs), poor soil quality and irregular rainfall will also influence which alternatives to methyl bromide would be appropriate and useful. VI. Other Factors
25. Culture:
NO
26. Trans-Boundary Issues:
YES
Many countries require that products be treated with methyl bromide before they will accept them for import. As long as this is required, countries like Kenya will have to comply with these regulations to maintain and increase export earnings for national revenues. It is also a difficult situation for developing countries when European countries decided in 1995 agreed to a complete ban on methyl bromide production by 2010, but have not provided promised funding for the Interim Multilateral Ozone Fund (IMOF). IMOF was created to help developing countries develop alternatives to the use of this harmful substance. Industrialized countries, including the United States which is the world's largest user of methyl bromide, also need to invest more funding in research to develop cost-effective, non-chemical alternatives. 27. Rights:
NO 28. Relevant Literature
1. Cousteau, Jean-Michel, The Costeau Watch: Methyl Bromide a catch-22 for developing economies, Jean-Michel Costeau Productions, 1996, http://planet-hawaii.com/sos/JM Cousteau bromide.html. 2. EcoNews Africa, Vol.4, No.1, January 30, 1995.
3. The Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report - Kenya: 3rd quarter 1997, London.
4. FAO Calls for Intensified Pesticide Controls in Africa, FAO Press Release 96/36, http://www.fao.org/Waicent/ois/Press ne/Pressen/h31F.htm.
5. FAO News and Highlights, Unused Pesticides, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Unused Pesticides in Developing Countries: 100,000 tons threaten health and environment.
6. Greenpeace, The World Bank, Chemical Giants and the Ozone Layer, World Bank Fact Sheet #4, http://www.greenpeace.org/--ozone/wbfacts/facts4.html.
7. Kenya Web, Trade in Kenya, http://www.kenyawe.com/economy/trade/trade.html.
8. Mabongunje, Akin, The Environmental Challenges in sub-Saharan Africa, Environment, May 1995, Vol. 37, No.4.
9. McGehan, Barbara and Dr. James Butler, Oceans Remove More Ozone-Depleting Methyl Bromide From Atmosphere Than Previously Estimated, Research Shows, http://www.noaa.gov/public-affairs/pr97/may97/noaa97-31.html.
10. Methyl Bromide Phaseout Web Site, United States Environmental Protection Agency, http://www.epa.gov/docs/ozone/mbr/mbrqu.html.
11. Methyl Bromide Use, United States Environmental Protection Agency, http://www.epa.gov/docs/ozone/mbr/ambpg03.html.
12. Montreal Protocol Home Page, http://acd.ucar.edu/gpdf/ozone/mp/.
13. Ozone Action (informational materials).
14. PANUPS, Africa NGOs Meet on Pesticides and Sustainable Agriculture, Pesticide Action Network North America Updates Service.
15. PANUPS, Methyl Bromide Use in Africa Analyzed in PANNA Report, Pesticide Action Network Nothe America Updates Service, http://www.well.com/conf/agri/PANUPS.html.
16. Schauer, Tiffany, Methyl Bromide: An International Inconsistency?, Brobeck, Phleger & Harrison 1996, http://brobeck.com.docs.methyl.htm.
17. Shonfield, Anne, Lucy Wamukonya, and Susan Glendening, Under African Skies - Methyl Bromide Use and Alternatives in Africa, Pesticide Action Network North America.
18. World Meteorological Organization, Improved Monitoring and Research Essential to Assess Effectiveness of the Montreal Protocol, http://www.wmo.ch/web/Press/Press601.html.
19. 2020 News & Views, February 1995, Applying Science to sub-Saharan Africa's Food Needs.