This Lesson's logo is Pizarro's cavalry

Lesson 7 Text: The Conquest of Peru and Chile

I. The Conquest of Peru: Pizarro

The conquest of the Andean Inca Empire is associated with the name of Francisco Pizarro (1470?-1541), a man of more limited education and preparation than Cortés, but who imitated him in a number of ways. Pizarro was the illegitimate son of a minor nobleman in Estremadura, Spain, and spent his youth looking after his father's swine. When the early Spanish explorers began to organize the first expeditions, Pizarro was more than eager to join them. He eventually settled in Panama, where rumors of a rich kingdom to the south in a place called "Biru" were circulating. He launched two small exploratory expeditions which brought back some gold, fine weavings, and a strange animal called a llama. But Pizarro had problems obtaining money and men for a new expedition, and he decided to appeal directly to the Spanish King Charles I.

Fig. 7-1: Pizarro and his men

Pizarro arrived at the Spanish court at a most auspicious time in the year 1528. Cortés had just returned from Mexico with physical proof of the riches of the Aztec Empire, and King Charles was more than willing to believe that a similar fortune awaited an enterprising explorer on the South American mainland. And so he named Pizarro his "adelantado", a position which included a generous salary (to be collected from whatever riches he found in his adventure). Armed with the King's support, Pizarro returned to Panama and was finally able to mount his definitive expedition in 1531, with some 180 men and 27 horses. He first landed on the coast of what is today's Ecuador, on the northern fringes of the Inca Empire. There he learned that the Empire was deeply divided and weakened by a long civil war between two claimants to the throne. Although the war had just finished, with the Inca Atahualpa the victor, there were still many Inca subjects who supported his rival. Pizarro sensed that the time was ripe for a quick strike at the heart of the Empire by capturing and holding Atahualpa himself, much as Cortés had done with Moctezuma in Mexico.

And so, reinforced with troops and horsemen led by Hernando de Soto (who was later to discover the Mississippi) he headed to the Inca city of Cajamarca, a difficult march up into the Andes mountains and the heart of the Inca Empire. To their surprise, on arriving in late 1532, Pizarro found Cajamarca deserted, and learned that the Inca Atahualpa had moved his soldiers to a camp near his royal baths. Pizarro sent his brother and de Soto to intimidate the Inca with their horses and invite him to Cajamarca. The events which followed, and which marked the beginning of the end of the Inca empire, are described in the reading later on in this chapter.

After capturing Atahualpa, Pizarro accepted the Inca's offer of obtaining his freedom in exchange for a room full of gold and one of silver. For two months the Inca's people brought in their precious objects to fill the rooms and then be melted down to make it easier to ship back to Spain. All of Pizarro's men became instantly rich, since even after the King's fifth the lowest ranking soldier's share was some ninety pounds of gold and a hundred and eighty of silver.

The final outcome was not happy. Pizarro was reluctant to release Atahualpa, afraid that he would lead an uprising against the Spanish (several rebellions were in fact mounted). So the Spanish found an excuse to accuse Atahualpa of conspiracy and condemned him to death by fire, a sentence that was changed to garroting (strangulation) when he embraced the Christian faith of his conquerors.

Fig. 7-2: Atahualpa prisoner

Pizarro moved quickly to seize the Inca capital of Cuzco in 1533, and then founded the coastal city of Lima to facilitate communications with Panama and Spain. Pizarro's men fell to squabbling among themselves over the riches, the land, and the slaves they hoped to control. A series of civil wars between various groups of Spaniards ensued until the King sent a strong Viceroy to impose order. Pizarro himself died in a sword battle against assassins; his remains are on display in the main cathedral of Lima.

B. Guamán Poma de Ayala's description

Guamán Poma de Ayala (1526?-1614?) was descended from a noble Inca family, but his name symbolizes the process of cultural mestizaje (transcultural adaptation or transculturation) that took place shortly after the conquest. "Guamán" means "falcon" in the Quechua language of the Inca, while "poma" is a variant of the puma mountain lion; "Ayala" is a Spanish name. His principal work was titled (with some irony) The First New Chronicle of Good Government, and in its 1800 pages and over 300 drawings he presents us a vivid picture of the last days of the Incas, the conquest, and the imposition of Spanish Colonial rule by Pizarro and his men in the decade of the 1530's. His language and style is difficult in the original because of his lack of formal education and his mixed Spanish-Quechua vocabulary. But the book is a unique encyclopedia of the Quechua Inca world of his parents, the history of his race, its origins, kings, customs, feasts, religion, and everyday life. He devotes considerable attention to the arrival of the Spanish (Guamán Poma was about six years old when Pizarro landed in Túmbez in 1532) and to the destruction of the Inca Empire.

The First New Chronicle and Good Government by Guamán Poma de Ayala

Captain general Rumuiani, ambassador of Atahualpa the Inca, went to the port of Túmbez to meet with don Francisco de Pizarro, the ambassador of the Emperor (of Spain). Pizarro and Diego de Almagro had many responses and compliments. The Inca's ambassador begged the Christians to return to their lands and he said that he would give them much gold and silver to leave. And they answered that they wished to see and kiss the hands of the Inca king. After that they would go away and tell everything to their king the emperor.

The Inca Atahualpa sent Indian serfs to don Francisco Pizarro and his men. They gave them beds, rich gifts and women. They also gave gifts to all the horses, because they said that these horses were people who ate corn.

Fig. 7-3: Inca Ambassadors meet Pizarro

In the year one thousand five hundred and three; Pope Clement VII (eleven years of his Pontificate); Emperor don Carlos the Fifth (of his Empire fifteen years) don Francisco Pizarro and don Diego de Almagro march to the city of Cajamarca with one hundred and sixty soldiers against Atahualpa the Inca with one hundred thousand Indians; Hernando de Soto, Sebastián de Balcázar and Hernando Pizarro with twenty knights on horse and Felipe Guancabilca, Indian interpreter, brought for the conquest. They entered Cajamarca and the aforesaid Inca Atahualpa was not there, he was at the baths. Atahualpa sent his ambassador to the city saying that the Spanish Christians should return to their own lands. Don Francisco Pizarro and don Diego de Almagro responded that they would not return yet. ...

Since the aforesaid Atahualpa was at the Cajamarca baths, Hernando Pizarro and Sebastián de Balcázar went there on their horses, furious and armed, and they carried many bells and plumes and said armed knights dug their legs into their horses' flanks and galloped furiously. They said that this panicked the Inca and the Indians who were at the Cajamarca baths, since they had never before seen this. All the Inca's people were panicked, astonished, and everyone ran away because such huge animals ran towards them, and on top of each animal was a man, something never before seen. Don Francisco Pizarro and Friar Vicente of the order of our Lord San Francisco went to the city of Cajamarca. Atahualpa the Inca went from the baths to the city and court of Cajamarca, with his captains and many more people, one hundred thousand Indians, in the public plaza, in the middle of his throne and seat of empire.

Fig. 7-4: Spanish horsemen

And then don Francisco Pizarro and don Diego de Almagro began to talk to him, using their interpreter Felipe, the Guancabilca Indian. Pizarro said that he was a messenger and ambassador of a great lord, and that he was a friend, and that he had come only for that purpose.

The Inca replied very courteously, and with majesty, saying that it might be true that they came from such a distant land as messengers, and that he believed their king was a great lord, but he the Inca had no need to make friendships, that he too was a great lord in his kingdom.

After this reply, Frair Vicente came in with his approach, carrying a cross in his right hand and the Bible in his left. And he said to the Inca Atahualpa that he too was an ambassador and messenger from another lord, a great friend of God, and who was his friend, and that he should worship the cross and believe in the gospel of God and that anything else was of little importance.

Fig. 7-5: The "Requirement"

Atahualpa the Inca replied, saying that he had no need to worship anyone except the sun that never dies. And the Inca asked Friar Vicente who had told him what he just said. Friar Vicente answered that the gospel, the book, had told him so.

And Atahualpa said: give it to me, the book, so that it can speak to me. And he took it in his hands, and began to leaf through the pages of the book. And the Inca said that this book is saying nothing to me, and he threw the book down.

With this Friar Vicente cried out: "Here, men, these Indians are against our faith!" And don Francisco Pizarro and don Diego de Almagro cried out, saying: "Come out, men, against these infidels who are against our Christianity and against our emperor and king, let's get them!"

And thus the warriors began, firing their arquebuses and with a great noise of the bells and the weapons never before seen by the Indians who filled the plaza of Cajamarca. The walls of the fence of the plaza of Cajamarca were destroyed.

And they killed each other, from pushing together and stepping on each other and climbing over each other to get away from the horses. Many Indians died, so many that they could not be counted. Of the Spaniards only five died, because no Indian dared to attack them, so great was their panic and astonishment.

And thus did don Francisco Pizarro and don Diego de Almagro seize said Atahualpa Inca, and take him from his throne. They took him without wounding him, and he was a prisoner under Spanish guard, next to don Francisco Pizarro. The Inca was very sad and inconsolable and without his majesty, seated on the ground with no throne and no kingdom.

II. The Conquest of Chile

The conquest of Chile, to the south of the Inca Empire in Peru, was not easy. The principal difference between this one and the conquests of Mexico and Peru was that the Indigenous peoples of Chile, mainly the tribe known as the Araucanians, were nomadic, and did not have a highly centralized organization such as did the Aztecs or Incas. Thus, it was not possible for the Spanish to capture the head of the empire and then substitute their authority for his. The Araucanians were also fierce fighters, and the Incas had never been able to subjugate them; in fact the Araucanians were probably the only Indigenous group never conquered by force, and sporadic fighting between them and the European settlers continued until the late 1800s'.

Fig. 7-6: Valdivia

The expedition to conquer Chile was entrusted to Pedro de Valdivia, an intelligent and capable man who set out from Cuzco with a small band in the year 1540. Among his followers was Inés de Suárez, a remarkable woman who fought alongside the soldiers and frequently provided Valdivia with wise counsel and the strength to go on. After many battles against the Araucanians and many hardships, Valdivia finally reached the fertile central valley of Chile and founded the city of Santiago at the site of the hill of Santa Lucía in early 1541. The struggle, however, had only begun. The Araucanians refused to accept his rule and almost destroyed the settlement. They captured Spanish horses and learned how to use the rugged terrain to defend themselves against the slow Spanish push southward. Valdivia himself was captured and killed by the Araucanians. One legend has it that they killed him by pouring melted gold down his throat. The long struggle between the Spanish and the Araucanians is told in the first epic poem written in the Americas, "La Araucana" ("The Araucaniad").

The epic poem: La Araucana (The Araucaniad) by Alonso de Ercilla

Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga (1534-1594) was different from the soldiers and conquerors who had come to America in the late 15th and early 16th centuries: he was an educated and sensitive man of the Royal Court who was the epitome of the Renaissance soldier-poet. He represents a clean break with Spain's Medieval past, ushering in the New World's own esthetic literary tradition. He was a young page in the court of Prince Philip (later King Philip II) in 1533 when he accompanied the Prince to London to meet his future wife, Mary Tudor. There the Spanish received word of the rebellion of the Araucanian Indians of Chile and the death of Valdivia.

Fig 7-7: Ercilla y Zúñiga

In London, at the age of twenty-one, he volunteered to join the punitive expedition and participated in many of the fierce battles against the Araucanians. He often scribbled his verses immediately after the heat of battle on any available materials (including at times cloth and even the bark of a tree). Ercilla presented a different view of the American Indian as a noble and worthy adversary who deserved respect and all the courtesies of the code of chivalry. At the same time, the horrors and sufferings of the prolonged struggle between the two unyielding adversaries surfaces in all his vividly-described battle scenes.

Ercilla's was the epic poem of the conquest. It was the first major literary work that came out of the New World which had an undeniable esthetic value and a vibrant authenticity. The poem, unlike many epics, does not really have a hero, although Ercilla places himself in many of the battles. In a certain sense the hero is the Aracanian race (and many of their chiefs), since Ercilla applied the Spanish Renaissance code of chivalry which respected and honored one's adversaries. Even though Ercilla at times idealizes the combatants and the conflict, he also gives us many realistic scenes in which there is no doubt about the author's strong negative reaction to the brutality of war and the abuses commited by both sides.

La Araucana was published in Spain in segments (1569-1589) after Ercilla returned from the wars. It had great success, in part because of the high social position of the author, who continued to serve his sovereign King Phillip II. That service included fathering a son who died in the disaster of the Invincible Armada in 1588. With Ercilla, critics in Spain realized for the first time that the Spanish America had literature of its own which deserved attention both for its high esthetic value and its historical and cultural content.

La Araucana (The Araucaniad) by Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga (Translation by Walter Owen)

Sing Muse-, but not of Venus and her chuck,

And amorous jousts in dainty lists of love,

Favors and forfeits won in Beauty's siege

By soft assaults of chamber gallantry;

But of the valiant deeds and worthy fame

Of those who far on surge-ensundered shores,

Bent the proud neck of Araucania's race

To Spain's stern yoke, by war's arbitrament.

Yet not their feats alone inspire my pen

To stamp their glory on the epic page,

But of their foeman too-, attend, and hear

Of stubborn tribes no common king obey,

But each its rival chief; of customs strange,

Rare arts and curious crafts; and if I praise

The conquered brave, so shall my words exalt

The worth of those who were their conquerors.

And thou, great Philip, sov'reign lord of Spain,

To whom these labours of my peaceful hours,

As once the service of my sword, I bring

In humble bearance; grant my subject plea,

And when thine eye my modest page reviews,

Deign to accept. Read here a warrior's tale,

That of all merit bare save simple truth,

Thy favour seeks for all its ornament.

Chile my scene; a fertile land remote,

Hard by the border of Antarctic seas,

Home of a stiff-necked people, bred to arms,

Renowed in war, by neighbor nations feared;

Whose hot distempered blood alike rebels

At rule domestic and at stranger yoke.

No king among themselves they own, nor e'er

Have bowed the knee to foreign conqueror.

Due North and South the Chilean coastline runs,

Fronting along the West the Southern Main;

Upon the East a range of cloud-capped peaks

Shuts in the plainlands for a thousand leagues;

Midway between the North and South is where

Our scene of war is set; here that fierce tribe

I speak of dwells; mild Venus here no part

Has in men's lives; but Mars alone is lord.

Stark-visaged War here all men's days employs

And martial arts are all the cares of state;

In thirty-six degrees it lies; mark well the place

Where this ferocious and unbridled tribe

Spread fear and death, keeping all foes at bay,

And spilling out their own and other's blood;

Battle their sole delight, till far and wide

All Chile trembles at Arauco's name.

What needs more words? Such was the hardy race

That o'er the greater part of Chilean soil

Held sway, pre-eminent in deeds and fame,

Whose high renown rang to her farthest bounds,

And that, as I shall tell, cost Spain so dear,

And for a season held her arms in check.

Full twenty leagues their boundaries contain,

And sixteen warrior chieftains hold the land.

Robust and strong, hairless of lip and chin,

Well-grown and tall above the run of men,

Of ample shoulders and capacious breasts,

And brawny limbs thickset with stubborn thews,

Ready and nimble and high-spirited,

Haughty and daring, reckless in assault,

Hardy and tireless, bearing undismayed

Cold, hunger, heat, and all extremities.

Nor ever has a king by force subdued

This haughty people to his vassalage,

Nor has the foot of an invading foe

Left shameful print upon Arauco's soil,

Nor neighboring tribe so temerarious

To try the battle with their furious hosts.

Untamed and feared by all, they live or die

With haughty neck unbowed to God or man.

Once in times gone the Inca potentate

Renowned in arms thru all those southern coasts

And eager to subdue new lands and tribes,

Hearing reports of this unconquered race,

Marshalled an army of his chosen braves,

Then, under his best captains, bade them take

The road to Chile; but Arauco's fame

Cooled their hot blood and turned them back again.

Who, with damp mud to the waist,

With two or three fought;

who to show greater boldness,

trying to move, became more enmired instead;

who, trying his strength and fortune,

to the neighbouring enemy held fast

biting him and blinding him with mud

seeking to win in any way he could.

Fig. 7-10: Spanish and Incas (Guamán Poma de Ayala)